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Battles of Wenden (1577–78)
The Battles of Wenden were a series of battles for control of the stronghold of Wenden (Cēsis, Kiesia, Võnnu), in present-day Latvia, fought during the Livonian War in 1577 and 1578. Magnus of Livonia besieged the town in August 1577, but was deposed and replaced by Russian forces under tsar Ivan IV who eventually sacked the town and castle in what became a symbolic victory. Polish forces however re-captured the stronghold in November, and beat back a Russian counter-attack in February 1578.
In October 1578, the Russian army again laid siege to the town but was destroyed by a smaller Swedish–German–Polish relief force. This marked the turning point in the Livonian War, shifting the initiative from the Tsardom of Russia to Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It also marked the end of the Kingdom of Livonia, which collapsed when Magnus retired to Courland.
==Background==
In 1570 and 1571, Ivan IV "the Terrible" of Russia faced internal disputes, culminating in the slaughter of Novgorod's inhabitants〔Frost (2000), p. 27〕 and the burning of Moscow by the tartars.〔Peterson (2007), p. 91〕 Yet, he was able to recover and resume his campaigns in the Livonian War in 1572.〔 A Swedish counter-offensive in 1574 failed.〔Peterson (2007), p. 93〕 Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy, relying on tens of thousands of native troops, cossacks and tartars, instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as practiced by his adversaries.〔 Swedish forces were besieged in Reval (Tallinn), Danish Estonia was raided, and so was central Livonia as far as Dünaburg (Daugavpils), since 1561 formally under Polish suzerainty.〔 The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus,〔 who was declared as king of Livonia in 1570.〔
The year 1576 marked the height of Ivan's campaign, and another 30,000 Russian forces crossed into Livonia in 1577.〔 Magnus had fallen into disgrace when he defected from Ivan IV during the same year,〔Oakley (1992), p. 37〕 and started to subordinate castles without consulting the tsar.〔 When Kokenhusen (Koknese) submitted to Magnus in the hope of avoiding Ivan IV's army, the tsar sacked it and executed its German commanders.〔 The campaign then focussed on Wenden (Cēsis, Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also a symbol for Livonia itself.〔
抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
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